Vol. 3, No. 5  

The Journal of Leadership Applications

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Our Military Expedition to Persia

by

Xenophon

Translation by H.G. Dakyns

For years I avoided reading this book.  In fact, I had never heard of it until the world famous management guru, Peter F. Drucker became my professor at what is now the Peter F. Drucker School of Management at Claremont Graduate University in California.  Maybe because of my intense interest in leadership, Drucker singled me out and emphatically told me that the first systematic book on leadership was written by Xenophon two thousand years ago, and was still the best.

This was in 1976. Ever since I had been a Patrol Leader in the Boy Scouts, I had been reading books on leadership. As a West Pointer and later an Air force officer, I had read even more. Yet, I had never heard of Xenophon, but I knew that if he wrote this book two thousand years ago, it was not going to be written in modern, dynamic style and I would be bored silly. So almost intentionally, I looked the other way, even when I saw a modern translation.

I didn’t actually read Xenophon until years later. I sat down to write my first book on leadership. I remembered Drucker’s words and when I next spoke to him by phone, he told me how fascinating the book was. At the time, I was a colonel in the Air Force. “You’ll like the book, “Drucker said. “Xenophon was a military man, too. In fact, he was a general.”

So here was arguably the foremost management philosopher of our time telling me this book, written 2000 years ago by a general had something to say not only to me as a military leader, but to business leaders as well. I couldn’t see how I could tell others about what I learned without following Drucker’s recommendation and reading Xenophon. I was glad I did.

Xenophon was part of a 10,000 man Greek army hired by the Persian pretender to the throne, Cyrus the Younger, to defeat his brother in the fourth century B.C.  At the time, the Greeks were considered the best infantrymen in the world. Cyrus thought that with these troops he could surprise and defeat his brother’s vastly superior force and seize the throne.

At first things went well, but in a crucial battle, Cyrus himself was killed, the leading Greek generals were killed through treachery, and the campaign collapsed leaving the 10,000 Greeks stranded in Babylon surrounded by hostile forces.  Xenophon was elected as one of the replacement generals.

Our Military Expedition to Persia tells the story of the fight to return to the Black Sea against overwhelming odds. This march, the most famous in history took five months. It is a story of courage, improvisation, and discipline, self-sacrifice, and above all . . . LEADERSHIP.

Xenophon practiced leadership in a different time and a different place. His leadership challenges were of a different type than those I faced in the Air Force, or later in business or as an academic leader.  But Drucker was right. The basis of his illustrations, the lessons of his experiences, the principles or laws of integrity, commitment, duty and the others that I discovered in my research of modern leaders were absolutely and dramatically confirmed. 

Whatever your leadership challenges, you can learn from Xenophon’s experiences, and like Drucker, I am happy to recommend it to you.

In the following excerpt, you can see examples of Xenophon’s leadership after the leading generals had been induced to come unarmed into the Persian camp and were killed.

Xenophon Becomes a General

After the generals had been seized, and the captains and soldiers who formed their

escort had been killed, the Hellenes lay in deep perplexity--a prey to painful reflections.

Here were they at the king's gates, and on every side environing them were many hostile 

cities and tribes of men. Who was there now to furnish them with a market? Separated 

from Hellas by more than a thousand miles, they had not even a guide to point the way.

Impassable rivers lay athwart their homeward route, and hemmed them in. Betrayed even 

by the Asiatics, at whose side they had marched with Cyrus to the attack, they were left

in isolation. Without a single mounted trooper to aid them in pursuit: was it not perfectly 

plain that if they won a battle, their enemies would escape to a man, but if they were beaten 

themselves, not one soul of them would survive?

Haunted by such thoughts, and with hearts full of despair, but few of them tasted food

that evening; but few of them kindled even a fire, and many never came into camp at all 

that night, but took their rest where each chanced to be. They could not close their eyes

for very pain and yearning after their fatherlands or their parents, the wife or child whom

they never expected to look upon again. Such was the plight in which each and all tried to 

seek repose Now there was in that host a certain man, an Athenian, Xenophon, who had 

accompanied Cyrus, neither as a general, nor as an officer, nor yet as a private soldier, but 

simply on the invitation of an old friend, Proxenus. This old friend had sent to fetch him from 

home, promising, if he would come, to introduce him to Cyrus, "whom," said Proxenus, "I 

consider to be worth my fatherland and more to me."

Xenophon having read the letter, consulted Socrates the Athenian, whether he should 

accept or refuse the invitation. Socrates, who had a suspicion that the State of Athens 

might in some way look askance at my friendship with Cyrus, whose zealous co-operation 

with the Lacedaemonians against Athens in the war was not forgotten, advised Xenophon 

to go to Delphi and there to consult the god as to the desirability of such a journey. 

Xenophon went and put the question to Apollo, to which of the gods he must pray and do 

sacrifice, so that he might best accomplish his intended journey and return in safety, with 

good fortune. Then Apollo answered him: "To such and such gods must thou do sacrifice,

" and when he had returned home he reported to Socrates the oracle. But he, when he 

heard,

 blamed Xenophon that he had not, in the first instance, inquired of the god, whether 

it were better for him to go or to stay, but had taken on himself to settle that point 

affirmatively, by inquiring straightway, how he might best  perform the journey. "Since, 

however," continued Socrates, "you did so put the question, you should do what the god 

enjoined." Thus, and without further ado, Xenophon offered sacrifice to those whom the god

had named, and set sail on his voyage. He overtook Proxenus and Cyrus at Sardis, when 

they were just ready to start on the march up country, and was at once introduced to Cyrus. 

Proxenus eagerly pressed him to stop--a request which Cyrus with like ardor supported, 

adding that as

 soon as the campaign was over he would send him home. The campaign 

referred to was understood to be against the Pisidians. That is how Xenophon came to join 

the expedition, deceived indeed, though not by Proxenus, who was equally in the dark with 

the rest of the Hellenes, not counting Clearchus, as to the intended attack upon the king. 

Then, though the majority were in apprehension of the journey, which was not

 at all to their 

minds, yet, for very shame of one another and Cyrus, they continued to follow him, and with 

the rest went Xenophon.

And now in this season of perplexity, he too, with the rest, was in sore distress, and could 

not sleep; but anon, getting a snatch of sleep, he had a dream. It seemed to him in a vision 

that there was a storm of thunder and lightning, and a bolt fell on his father's house, and 

thereupon the house was all in a blaze. He sprung up in terror, and pondering the matter, 

decided that in part the dream was good: in that he had seen a great light from Zeus, 

whilst in the midst of toil and danger. But partly too he feared it, for evidently it had come 

from Zeus the king. And the fire kindled all around--what could that mean but that he was 

hemmed in by various perplexities, and so could not escape from the country of the king? 

The full meaning, however, is to be discovered from what happened after the dream.

This is what took place. As soon as he was fully awake, the first clear thought which came

into his head was, Why am I lying here? The night advances; with the day, it is like enough, 

the enemy will be upon us. If we are to fall into the hands of the king, what is left us but to 

face the most horrible of sights, and to suffer the most  fearful pains, and then to die, 

insulted, an ignominious death? To defend ourselves--to ward off that fate--not a hand stirs: 

no one is preparing, none cares; but here we lie, as though it were time to rest and take 

our ease. I too! what am I waiting for? a general to undertake the work? and from what city? 

am I waiting till I am older myself and of riper age? older I shall never be, if to-day I betray 

myself to my enemies.

Thereupon he got up, and called together first Proxenus's officers; and when they were met, 

he said: "Sleep, sirs, I cannot, nor can you, I fancy, nor lie here longer, when I see in what 

straits we are. Our enemy, we may be sure, did not open war upon us till he felt he had 

everything amply ready; yet none of us shows a corresponding anxiety to enter the lists 

of battle in the bravest style. "And yet, if we yield ourselves and fall into the

 king's power, 

need we ask what our fate will be? This man, who, when his own brother, the son of the 

same parents, was dead, was not content with that, but severed head and hand from the 

body, and nailed them to a cross. We, then, who have not even the tie of blood in our favor, 

but who marched against him, meaning to make a slave of him instead of a king--and to 

slay him if we could: what is likely to be our fate at his hands? Will he not go all lengths so 

that, by inflicting on us the extreme of ignominy and torture, he may rouse in the rest of 

mankind a terror of ever marching against him any more? There is no question but that 

our business is to avoid by all means getting into his clutches.

"For my part, all the while the truce lasted, I never ceased pitying ourselves and 

congratulating the king and those with him, as, like a helpless spectator, I surveyed the 

extent and quality of their territory, the plenteousness of their provisions, the multitude of 

their dependants, their cattle, their gold, and their apparel. And then to turn and ponder the 

condition of our soldiers, without part or lot in these good things, except we bought it; few, I 

knew, had any longer the wherewithal to buy, and yet our oath held us down, so that we 

could not provide ourselves otherwise than by purchase. I say, as I  reasoned thus, there 

were times when I dreaded the truce more than I now dread war.

"Now, however, that they have abruptly ended the truce, there is an end also to their own 

insolence and to our suspicion. All these good things of theirs are now set as prizes for the 

combatants. To whichsoever of us shall prove the better men, will they fall as guerdons; 

and the gods themselves are the judges of the strife. The gods, who full surely will be on 

our side, seeing it is our enemies who have taken their names falsely; whilst we, with much 

to lure us, yet for our oath's sake, and the gods who were our witnesses, sternly held aloof. 

So that, it seems to me, we have a right to enter upon this contest with much more heart 

than our foes; and further, we are possessed of bodies more capable than theirs of bearing 

cold and heat and labor; souls too we have, by the help of heaven, better and braver; nay, 

the men themselves are more vulnerable, more mortal, than ourselves, if so be the gods 

vouchsafe to give us victory once again.

"Howbeit, for I doubt not elsewhere similar reflections are being made, whatsoever betide, 

let us not, in heaven's name, wait for others to come and challenge us to noble deeds; let us

rather take the lead in stimulating the rest to valor. Show yourselves to be the bravest of 

officers, and among generals, the worthiest to command. For myself, if you choose to start 

forwards on this quest, I will follow; or, if you bid me lead you, my age shall be no excuse to 

stand between me and your orders. At least I am of full age, I take it, to avert misfortune 

from my own head."

Such were the speaker's words; and the officers, when they heard, all, with one exception, 

called upon him to put himself at their head. This was a certain Apollonides there present, 

who spoke in the Boeotian dialect. This man's opinion was that it was mere nonsense for 

any one to pretend they could obtain safety otherwise than by an appeal to the king, if he 

had skill to enforce it; and at the same time he began to dilate on the difficulties. But 

Xenophon cut him short. "O most marvelous of men! though you have eyes to see, you do

not perceive; though you have ears to hear, you do not

 recollect. You were present  with the 

rest of us now here when, after the death of Cyrus, the king, vaunting himself on that 

occurrence, sent dictatorially to bid us lay down our arms. But when we, instead of giving up

our arms, put them on and went and pitched our camp near him, his manner changed. It is 

hard to say what he did not do, he was so at his wit's end, sending us embassies and 

begging for a truce, and furnishing provisions the while, until he had got it. Or to take the 

contrary instance, when just now, acting precisely on your principles, our generals and 

captains went, trusting to the truce, unarmed to a conference with them, what came of it? 

what is happening at this instant? Beaten, goaded with pricks, insulted, poor souls, they 

cannot even die: though death, I wean, would be very sweet. And you, who know all this, 

how can you say that it is mere nonsense to talk of self-defense? How can you bid us go 

again and try the arts of persuasion? In my opinion, sirs, we ought not to admit this fellow to 

the same rank with ourselves; rather ought we to deprive him of his captaincy, and load him 

with packs and treat him as such. The man is a disgrace to his own fatherland and the whole

of Hellas, that, being a Hellene, he is what he is."

Here Agasias the Stymphalian broke in, exclaiming: "Nay, this fellow has no connection 

either with Boeotia or with Hellas, none whatever. I have noted both his ears bored like a 

Lydian's." And so it was. Him then they banished. But the rest visited the ranks, and 

wherever a general was left, they summoned the general; where he was gone, the 

lieutenant-general; and where again the captain alone was left, the captain. As soon as they 

were all met, they seated themselves in front of the place d'armes: the assembled generals 

and officers, numbering about a hundred. It was nearly midnight when this took place. 

Thereupon Hieronymous the Eleian, the eldest of Proxenus's captains, commenced 

speaking as follows: "Generals and captains, it seemed right to us, in view of the present 

crisis, ourselves to assemble and to summon you, that we might advise upon some 

practicable course. Would you, Xenophon, repeat what you said to us?"

Thereupon Xenophon spoke as follows: "We all know only too well, that  the king and 

Tissaphernes have seized as many of us as they could, and it is clear they are plotting to 

destroy the rest of us if they can.

Our business is plain: it is to do all we can to avoid getting into the power of the barbarians; 

rather, if we can, we will get them into our power. Rely upon this then, all you who are here 

assembled, now is your great opportunity. The soldiers outside have their eyes fixed upon 

you; if they think that you are faint-hearted, they will turn cowards; but if you show them that 

you are making your own preparations to attack the enemy, and setting an example to the 

rest--follow you, be assured, they will: imitate you they will. May be, it is but right and fair that 

you should somewhat excel them, for you are generals, you are commanders of brigades or

regiments; and if, while it was peace, you had the advantage in wealth and position, so now,

when it is war, you are expected to rise superior to the common herd--to think for them, to 

toil for them, whenever there be need.

"At this very moment you would confer a great boon on the army, if you made it your 

business to appoint generals and officers to fill the places of those that are lost. For

without leaders nothing good or noble, to put it concisely, was ever wrought anywhere; and 

in military matters this is absolutely true; for if discipline is held to be saving virtue, the want 

of it has been the ruin of many ere now. Well, of then! when you have appointed all the 

commanders necessary, it would only be opportune, I take it, if you were to summon the 

rest of the soldiers and speak some words of encouragement. Even now, I daresay you 

noticed yourselves the crestfallen air with which they came into camp, the despondency 

with which they fell to picket duty, so that, unless there is a change for the better, I do not 

know for what service they will be fit; whether by night, if need were, or even by day. The 

thing is to get them to turn their thoughts to what they mean to do, instead of to what they 

are likely to suffer. Do that, and their spirits will soon revive wonderfully. You know, I need 

hardly remind you, it is not numbers or strength that gives victory in war; but, heaven helping 

them, to one or other of two combatants it is given to dash with stouter hearts to meet the 

foe, and such onset, in nine cases out of ten, those others refuse to meet. This observation, 

also, I have laid to heart, that they, who in matters of war seek in all ways to save their lives, 

are just they who, as a rule, die dishonorably; whereas they who, recognizing that death is 

the common lot and destiny of all men, strive hard to die nobly: these more frequently, as I 

observe, do after all attain to old age, or, at any rate, while life lasts, they spend their days 

more happily. This lesson let all lay to heart this day, for we are just at such a crisis of our 

fate. Now is the season to be brave ourselves, and to stimulate the rest by our example."

With these words he ceased; and after him, Cheirisophus said: "Xenophon, hitherto I knew 

only so much of you as that you were, I heard, an Athenian, but now I must commend you for 

your words and for your conduct. I hope that there may be many more like you, for it would 

prove a public blessing." Then turning to the officers: "And now," said he, "let us waste no 

time; retire at once, I beg you, and choose leaders where you need them. After you have 

made your elections, come back to the middle of the camp, and bring the newly appointed 

officers. After that, we will there summon a general meeting of the soldiers. Let Tolmides, 

the herald," he added, "be in attendance." With these words on his lips he got up, in order 

that what was needful might be done at once without delay. After this the generals were 

chosen. These were Timasion the Dardanian, in place of Clearchus; Xanthicles, an 

Achaean, in place of Socrates; Cleanor, an Arcadian, in place of Agias; Philesius, an 

Achaean, in place of Menon; and in place of Proxenus, Xenophon the Athenian.

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